What is CAP Consistency: 数据一致性 Availability: 可用性 Partition Tolerance: 分区容忍性 Consistency 指的是系统能够返回一致性的数据。 Gilbert 和 Lynch 的论文中是这样描述一致性的： Any read operation that begins after a write operation completes must return that value, or the result of a later write operation. 在某个写操作完成之后的任何读操作都必须返回该写操作写入的值，或者再之后的写操作写入的值。 在一个一致性的系统中，如果一个客户端写入了某个值到任意一个服务端上，并且得到了服务端的确认，那么客户端再去读的时候，不管是读的哪个服务，都期望拿到写入后的值或者是更新的值。 Available 指的是系统能保持在可用的状态。 Gilbert 和 Lynch 的论文对可用性的描述如下： Every request received by a non-failing node in the system must result in a response. 任何一个在线的节点收到的请求必须都做出相应。 在保证可用性的系统中，如果客户端向某个没有宕机的服务端发送了请求，服务端必须响应客户端的请求，不能选择忽略掉客户端的请求。 它要求系统内的节点们接收到了无论是写请求还是读请求，都要能处理并给回响应结果。只是它有两点必须满足的条件： 返回结果必须在合理的时间以内，这个合理的时间是根据业务来定的。 需要系统内能正常接收请求的所有节点都返回结果。 如果节点不能正常接收请求了，比如宕机了，系统崩溃了，而其他节点依然能正常接收请求，那么，我们说系统依然是可用的，也就是说，部分宕机没事儿，不影响可用性指标。 如果节点能正常接收请求，但是发现节点内部数据有问题，那么也必须返回结果，哪怕返回的结果是有问题的。 Partition Tolerance 指的是系统能够容忍分区问题。 ...

Faults and Partial Failures An individual computer with good software is usually either fully functional or entirely broken, but not something in between. Thus, computers hide the fuzzy physical reality on which they are implemented and present an idealized system model that operates with mathematical perfection. In a distributed system, there may well be some parts of the system that are broken in some unpredictable way, even though other parts of the system are working fine. This is known as a partial failure. The difficulty is that partial failures are nondeterministic: if you try to do anything involving multiple nodes and the network, it may sometimes work and sometimes unpredictably fail. ...

最近看了下之前业界关于 Redlock 的争论，发现还是挺有意思的，正好把自己最近学的知识串了起来，这里就简单总结一下。 Martin 的观点 使用分布式锁的目的 Martin 表示，你必须先清楚你在使用分布式锁的目的是什么？ 他认为有两个目的。 第一，效率。 使用分布式锁的互斥能力，是避免不必要地做同样的两次工作（例如一些昂贵的计算任务）。如果锁失效，并不会带来「恶性」的后果，例如发了 2 次邮件等，无伤大雅。 第二，正确性。 使用锁用来防止并发进程互相干扰。如果锁失效，会造成多个进程同时操作同一条数据，产生的后果是数据严重错误、永久性不一致、数据丢失等恶性问题，就像给患者服用了重复剂量的药物，后果很严重。 他认为，如果你是为了前者——效率，那么使用单机版 Redis 就可以了，即使偶尔发生锁失效（宕机、主从切换），都不会产生严重的后果。而使用 Redlock 太重了，没必要。 而如果是为了正确性，Martin 认为 Redlock 根本达不到安全性的要求，也依旧存在锁失效的问题。 NPC 问题 这些异常场景主要包括三大块，这也是分布式系统会遇到的三座大山：NPC。 N：Network Delay，网络延迟 P：Process Pause，进程暂停（GC） C：Clock Drift，时钟漂移 Martin 用一个进程暂停（GC）的例子，指出了 Redlock 安全性问题： 客户端 1 请求锁定节点 A、B、C、D、E 客户端 1 的拿到锁后，进入 GC（时间比较久） 所有 Redis 节点上的锁都过期了 客户端 2 获取到了 A、B、C、D、E 上的锁 客户端 1 GC 结束，认为成功获取锁 客户端 2 也认为获取到了锁，发生「冲突」 ...

A transaction is a way for an application to group several reads and writes together into a logical unit. Transactions are not a law of nature; they were created with a purpose, namely to simplify the programming model for applications accessing a database. 相当于数据库提供了一层重要的抽象，在编写应用程序时不用再去考虑那些能被事务处理的错误与问题了。 The Meaning of ACID The safety guarantees provided by transactions are often described by the well known acronym ACID, which stands for Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability. ...

The main reason for wanting to partition data is scalability. Normally, partitions are defined in such a way that each piece of data (each record, row, or document) belongs to exactly one partition. Partitioning and Replication Partitioning is usually combined with replication so that copies of each partition are stored on multiple nodes. This means that, even though each record belongs to exactly one partition, it may still be stored on several different nodes for fault tolerance. ...

Replication Versus Partitioning There are two common ways data is distributed across multiple nodes: Replication Keeping a copy of the same data on several different nodes, potentially in different locations. Replication provides redundancy and can also help improve performance. Partitioning Splitting a big database into smaller subsets called partitions so that different partitions can be assigned to different nodes (also known as sharding). These are separate mechanisms, but they often go hand in hand: ...

Formats for Encoding Data 这里提到了两种兼容性，后面分析数据编码格式时都会用到： In order for the system to continue running smoothly, we need to maintain compatibility in both directions: Backward compatibility Newer code can read data that was written by older code. Forward compatibility Older code can read data that was written by newer code. 直译有一个问题, 英语的"前后"在时间和空间上统一, 而汉语却是相反. 比如 forward 在空间上指前进, 在时间上指未来. 但是汉语中的"前"在空间上指前进, 在时间上却指过去. 向后兼容很好理解：指新的版本的软／硬件可以使用老版本的软／硬件产生的数据。 Forward compatibility 译为向前兼容极容易混乱，这里可以想成向未来兼容：指老的版本的软／硬件可以使用新版本的软／硬件产生的数据。 以下是几个例子： Intel 的 x86指令集 CPU 是向后兼容的，因为新款 CPU 依然可以运行老版本的软件。Intel 保证老版本 CPU 有的指令集新版本一定还保留着，这种只增加不删除的策略，保证了我们换 CPU 时，不需要更换很多软件。 ...

Relational Model Versus Document Model 首先谈到了 NoSQL 的诞生： There are several driving forces behind the adoption of NoSQL databases, including: A need for greater scalability than relational databases can easily achieve, includ‐ ing very large datasets or very high write throughput A widespread preference for free and open source software over commercial database products Specialized query operations that are not well supported by the relational model Frustration with the restrictiveness of relational schemas, and a desire for a more dynamic and expressive data model 然后通过下图的这份简历来说明了 one-to-many 这种关系 ...